Blogger Template by Blogcrowds.

World War Z (2013)

bjbnbmbnm

World War Z (2013)

 

       United Nations employee Gerry Lane traverses the world in a race against time to stop the Zombie pandemic that is toppling armies and governments, and threatening to destroy humanity itself.
Director   :
Writers    : (screenplay), (screenplay), 4 more credits 
Stars        : , ,



       Former UN investigator Gerry Lane, his wife Karin and their two daughters are in Philadelphia when the city is attacked by zombies. Everyone bitten by a zombie quickly becomes one as well. As chaos spreads, the Lanes flee to Newark, New Jersey and take refuge in the apartment of a couple and their young son, Tommy. After zombies infiltrate the building and infect Tommy's parents, UN Deputy Secretary-General Thierry Umutoni—an old friend of Gerry's sends a helicopter that transports the Lanes and Tommy to a U.S. Navy vessel in the Atlantic Ocean, where scientists and military personnel are analyzing the worldwide outbreak. Dr. Andrew Fassbach posits that the plague is a virus, and that development of a vaccine depends on finding the origin. Gerry reluctantly agrees to accompany Fassbach to the site of the earliest known outbreak after it is made clear that he and his family will be removed from the ship if he does not.
       Gerry and Fassbach fly to Camp Humphreys, a military base in South Korea, where they are attacked by zombies. Running back into the aircraft, Fassbach slips, falls and accidentally discharges his gun, killing himself. After being rescued by the base's surviving personnel, led by Captain Speke, Gerry learns that the infection was introduced to the base by its doctor, who was ultimately incinerated by a soldier with a lame leg whom the infected ignored. A former CIA operative imprisoned at the base tells Gerry to go to Jerusalem and talk to someone named Jurgen Warmbrunn. The zombies are attracted to sound, so Gerry and his team quietly bike back to their aircraft. Karin phones Gerry at the wrong time, however, causing zombies to attack. Infected, Captain Speke commits suicide. Gerry and the pilot escape.
      In Jerusalem, Gerry meets Jurgen Warmbrunn, who explains that months earlier, he had taken seriously an intercepted message that Indian troops were fighting the rakshasa ("undead"). As a result, the Israelis reacted more quickly to the danger than anyone else. The city itself is enclosed by very high walls and heavily guarded. Survivors are carefully let in, but loud celebratory singing by some of them incites the zombies to climb over each other at the wall, eventually scaling it and entering the city. Jurgen orders some Israeli soldiers to escort Gerry back to his plane. On the way, Gerry notices zombies ignoring a sick old man and an emaciated boy. One of Gerry's IDF escorts, a soldier who identifies herself only by her rank, Segen (lieutenant), is bitten on the hand. Gerry quickly amputates it to stop her from turning into a zombie. Discovering that his plane had already left, Gerry and Segen escape on a commercial airliner as Jerusalem is overrun.
       Gerry has a revelation. He calls his wife and talks to Thierry. He asks Thierry to find the nearest World Health Organization facility from Israel. Gerry heads up to the cockpit and waves his phone at the camera. After taking the call, the pilot tells Gerry that they are headed to Cardiff, Wales. When a stowaway zombie is inadvertently allowed into the cabin in mid-air, Gerry uses a grenade to blow open a hole in the side of the airplane; the infected are blown out, but the plane crashes. Gerry is injured, but both he and Segen survive. They proceed to the WHO facility, where Gerry loses consciousness for three days. When he awakens, he explains to the remaining staff his theory, based on his observations: the zombies ignore the seriously injured or terminally ill, since they would be unsuitable hosts. If they can infect people with a deadly but curable disease, they would be safe. Unfortunately, the facility's pathogens are in a wing overrun by the zombies. Gerry, Segen and the lead WHO doctor quietly sneak in, but accidentally make the noise. Chased, they become separated. Segen and the doctor return to safety, while Gerry reaches the pathogen vault. A zombie arrives outside the only entrance, forcing him to inject himself. After waiting a while for the disease to take effect, he opens the door. The zombie enters the vault but, sensing his infection, does not attack. Neither do the others he encounters while returning to the main wing where he is given a cure for the disease.
       Gerry and his family, who have adopted Tommy, are reunited in a safe zone at Freeport, Nova Scotia. A "vaccine" is developed and issued to troops battling the infected, and is also parachuted to other survivors. There is hope, though Gerry admits that the war is not over.

So Far Away | Avenged Sevenfold

So Far Away | Avenged Sevenfold

Never feared for anything
Tak pernah takut pada apapun
Never shamed but never free
Tak pernah malu namun tak pernah bebas
A life that healed a broken heart
Hidup yang menyembuhkan hati yang patah
With all that it could
Dengan segala yang bisa dilakukannya

Lived a life so endlessly
Menjalani hidup yang abadi
Saw beyond what others see
Melihat yang tak dilihat orang lain
I tried to heal your broken heart
Kuberusaha sembuhkan hatimu yang patah
With all that I could
Dengan segenap kemampuanku
Will you stay?
Akankah kau tinggal?
Will you stay away forever?
Akankah kau menjauh selamanya?

How do I live without the ones I love?
Bagaimana aku harus hidup tanpa orang-orang yang kucintai?
Time still turns the pages of the book it's burned
Waktu masih membalik halaman buku yang tlah dibakarnya
Place in time always on my mind
Kenangan lalu selalu kupikirkan
I have so much to say but you’re so far away
Banyak yang ingin kukatakan namun kau begitu jauh

Plans of what our futures hold
Rencana-rencana masa depan kita
Foolish lies of growing old
Keinginan semu saat menua
It seems we’re so invincible
Seolah kita tak terkalahkan
But the truth is so cold
Namun kebenaran begitu menyakitkan
 A final song, a last request
Lagu terakhir, permintaan terakhir
A perfect chapter laid to rest
Bab sempurna untuk berhenti
Now and then I try to find
Berkali-kali berusaha kucari
A place in my mind
Sebuah tempat di pikiranku
Where you can stay
Dimana kau bisa tinggal
You can stay awake forever
Kau bisa terus terjaga selamanya

Back to Chorus

Sleep tight, I'm not afraid
Tidurlah yang nyenyak, aku tak takut
The ones that we love are here with me
Orang-orang yang kita cinta ada di sini bersamaku
Lay away a place for me
Siapkan tempat untukku
'Cause as soon as I'm done I'll be on my way
Karna begitu aku mati, aku akan segera menuju
To live eternally
Ke kehidupan abadi

How do I live without the ones I love?
Bagaimana aku harus hidup tanpa orang-orang yang kucintai?
Time still turns the pages of the book it's burned
Waktu masih membalik halaman buku yang tlah dibakarnya
Place in time always on my mind
Kenangan lalu selalu kupikirkan
And the light you left remains but it's so hard to stay
Dan cahaya yang kau tinggalkan tetap menyala namun sulit rasanya untuk tinggal
When I have so much to say and you're so far away
Saat banyak yang ingin kukatakan dan kau begitu jauh

I love you, you were ready
Aku menyayangimu, kau telah siap
The pain is strong and urges rise
Sakit ini kuat dan menyesakkan
But I'll see you when it let's me
Namun aku kan melihatmu saat waktu mengijinkanku
Your pain is gone, your hands untied
Lukamu kan hilang, tanganmu tak lagi terikat

(2x)
So far away
Begitu jauh
And I need you to know
Dan aku ingin kau tahu



 Makna : KETAKUTAN didalam sebuah KEMATIAN



Making CV

Jakarta, December 20, 2010
To:
Unitama Megatrading Corp
Human Resources Department
Puri Kembangan Street Kav.102
Jakarta Barat

Dear Sir,
I know that Unitama Megatrading Corp. is one of the biggest retail product distributors in Indonesia, and I am sure it would be an excellent career opportunity to join in and work for this respective company.
I would like to apply for direct marketing and sales officer position in your company. I am in good health, willing to work, fast learning, and work well with others. I have my own vehicle, driving license A and C. Also, I have good communication skill and speak English fluently both oral and written.
I was graduated from Akademi Manajemen Perusahaan (AMP) YKPN Yogyakarta, majoring in Marketing Management in December 2003, and have been working for Pratama Corp Retails in sales and marketing department since January 2004. I believe my 2 years experience in this related field would be useful for me to contribute your company better.
I would greatly appreciate an opportunity to convince you that my services would be an asset to your company. I assure you that a high level of efficiency would be applied to any assignment given to me. I hope my qualifications and experiences merit to your consideration.
Thank you for kind attention, and I am looking forward to your reply.

Yours Faithfully,

Abdul Malik

Surat lamaran pekerjaan dalam bahasa inggris ini harus dilengkapi cv berbahasa inggris juga, berikut ini salah satu contoh dari CV (Curriculum Vitae):

Curriculum Vitae
Personal Details
Name                                                   :  Abdul Malik
Permanent address                       :  Jend. Soedirman Street No. 2 Jakarta Pusat
Recent address                                :  Mawar Street No. 3 Jakarta Barat
Faculty / Majority / intake           :  Marketing Management
Phone / cell phone                         :  021 – 012345 / 085123456789
Gender                                               :  Male
Place / Date of Birth                       :  Banyumas, 29 April 1987
Email                                                    :  Abdoel_malik@gmail.com
Religion                                               :  Islam
Hobby                                                  :  Traveling, reading and writing

Job Preference
Department which chosen         :  marketing and sales officer
Reason                                                :  I have 2 years experience in the marketing and sales

Professional Qualifications
Skills                                                     :  Work well with others, own vehicle, driving license A and C, good communication skill and speak English fluently both oral and written.
English background                        :  – Primaga Course for 2 years
- ELTU English Course for 1 year
Strength                                             :  Good communication and leadership
Weakness                                          :  I cannot control of my emotion
Disease (if any)                                :  Stomach illness.



Your Photo
(3 x 4)

Part Of Business Letter

  • The Heading (The Retern Address) or Letterhead - Companies usually use printed paper where heading or letterhead is specially designed at the top of the sheet. It bears all the necessary information about the organisation’s identity.


  • Date - Date of writing. The month should be fully spelled out and the year written with all four digits October 12, 2005
    (12 October 2005 - UK style). The date is aligned with the return address. The number of the date is pronounced as an ordinal figure, though the endings st, nd, rd, th, are often omitted in writing. The article before the number of the day is pronounced but not written. In the body of the letter, however, the article is written when the name of the month is not mentioned with the day.


  • The Inside Address - In a business or formal letter you should give the address of the recipient after your own address. Include the recipient's name, company, address and postal code. Add job title if appropriate. Separate the recipient's name and title with a comma. Double check that you have the correct spelling of the recipient 's name.

    The Inside Address is always on the left margin. If an 8 1/2" x 11" paper is folded in thirds to fit in a standard 9" business envelope, the inside address can appear through the window in the envelope.


  • The Greeting - Also called the salutation. The type of salutation depends on your relationship with the recipient. It normally begins with the word "Dear" and always includes the person's last name. Use every resource possible to address your letter to an actual person. If you do not know the name or the sex of of your reciever address it to Dear Madam/Sir (or Dear Sales Manager or Dear Human Resources Director). As a general rule the greeting in a business letter ends in a colon (US style). It is also acceptable to use a comma (UK style).


  • The Subject Line (optional) - Its inclusion can help the recipient in dealing successfully with the aims of your letter. Normally the subject sentence is preceded with the word Subject: or Re: Subject line may be emphasized by underlining, using bold font, or all captial letters. It is usually placed one line below the greeting but alternatively can be located directly after the "inside address," before the "greeting."


  • The Body Paragraphs - The body is where you explain why you’re writing. It’s the main part of the business letter. Make sure the receiver knows who you are and why you are writing but try to avoid starting with "I". Use a new paragraph when you wish to introduce a new idea or element into your letter. Depending on the letter style you choose, paragraphs may be indented. Regardless of format, skip a line between paragraphs.


  • The Complimentary Close - This short, polite closing ends always with a comma. It is either at the left margin or its left edge is in the center, depending on the Business Letter Style that you use. It begins at the same column the heading does. The traditional rule of etiquette in Britain is that a formal letter starting "Dear Sir or Madam" must end "Yours faithfully", while a letter starting "Dear " must end "Yours sincerely". (Note: the second word of the closing is NOT capitalized)


  • Signature and Writer’s identification - The signature is the last part of the letter. You should sign your first and last names. The signature line may include a second line for a title, if appropriate. The signature should start directly above the first letter of the signature line in the space between the close and the signature line. Use blue or black ink.


  • Initials, Enclosures, Copies - Initials are to be included if someone other than the writer types the letter. If you include other material in the letter, put 'Enclosure', 'Enc.', or ' Encs. ', as appropriate, two lines below the last entry. cc means a copy or copies are sent to someone else. 

Business Letter :

1. letter of introduction
Is a letter from the seller addressed to prospective purchasers with information about the company selling it to be known by the prospective buyer.
 

2. Letter Request for Quote
It is made ​​by letter addressed to the prospective buyer prospective seller in order to collect information about the goods - goods to be purchased.
 

3. letter of Offer
It is made ​​by letter addressed to the prospective seller prospective buyer in order to provide information / offer goods for sale.
 

4. Mail order
It is made ​​by letter addressed to the prospective buyer the seller with the intention to order the goods sold.
 

5. Order Acceptance Letter
It is made ​​by letter addressed to the prospective buyer the seller for the purpose of the letter informed him that the order has been received.
 

6. letter of complaint
It is made ​​by letter addressed to the prospective buyer in order to ask the seller for compensation for goods that have been purchased because the items purchased not in accordance with the buyer's request.
 

7. Collection Letters
Is a letter from the seller addressed to prospective purchasers with information about the outstanding debt.


2. Format of Business Letter

{NOTE: your name goes only at the bottom}
Your Return Address (no abbreviations for Street, Avenue, etc.)
Your City, YO [your two letter state abbreviation] zip
Date (write out either like June 4, 2004 or 4 June 2004)

First and Last Name of the Person to whom you are writing
Address
City, ST zip

Dear Mr./Ms. Person: [note the colon]
Times have changed, and indentations for paragraphs are usually not used because it is easier not to use them. The body paragraphs should be single spaced in a business letter. But you should double space between paragraphs when your letter contains more than one paragraph.
In a second paragraph, you will want to give a specific example of how you benefited from your contact with this person. Be sure to thank him/her for his/her time and efforts on your behalf.
Sincerely yours,
{three spaces so that your signature may appear here}
Sally Student

A business letter is not restricted to one page; the letter should be as long as it needs to be. Please note the line spacing!


3. Style Of Business Letter

Business letter can be written with different styles, such as:

  • Full Block.
Full block style is a letter format in which all text is justified to the left margin. In block letter style, standard punctuation is placed after salutations and in other headings. Open punctuation, however, refers to a modification of style where all nonessential punctuation is omitted. A few key factors will help you understand block style format and the difference that open punctuation makes.
  1. Return Address:  If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this. Otherwise, type your name, address and optionally, phone number. These days, it’s common to also include an email address. 2. Date: Type the date of your letter two to six lines below the letterhead. Three are standard. If there is no letterhead, type it where shown.  3. Reference Line: If the recipient specifically requests information, such as a job reference or invoice number, type it on one or two lines, immediately below the Date.
 4. Special Mailing Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate.
5. On-Arrival Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate. You might want to include a notation on private correspondence.
 6. Inside Address:  Type the name and address of the person and/or company to whom you’re sending the letter, three to eight lines below the last component you typed. Four lines are standard.
 7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you’re sending the letter.
 8. Salutation: Type the recipient’s name here. Type Mr. or Ms. [Last Name] to show respect, but don’t guess spelling or gender.
 9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase characters, either flush left or centered. Be concise on one line.
 10. Body: Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief and to the point.
11. Complimentary Close: What you type here depends on the tone and degree of formality.
12. Signature Block: Leave four blank lines after the Complimentary Close to sign your name. Sign your name exactly as you type it below your signature. Title is optional depending on relevancy and degree of formality.
 13. Identification Initials: If someone typed the letter for you, he or she would typically include three of your initials in all uppercase characters, then two of his or hers in all lowercase characters.
14.  Enclosure Notation: This line tells the reader to look in the envelope for more. Type the singular for only one enclosure, plural for more.
15. cc: Stands for courtesy copies (formerly carbon copies). List the names of people to whom you distribute copies, in alphabetical order.
  • Semi-block style
Semi-blok fromat: in a format this text parallel left and all paragraphs in the letter is indented. Format shape on this letter on letter head, date, complementary a close, and signature being in a position flattened right. In the layout uneven right, but can dibilangg flattened middle. Other parts on a letter as inside address, subject, salutation, body of letter, and enclosure if terdapatnya attachment letter,Being flattened on the left.
Sample Form Letter Semi Block Style :
Description:
1.Kop Letter
2. Date of preparation of letters
3. Letter No.
4. attachment
5. case
6. The letter addressed
7. a word of salutation
8a. Introduction letter
8b. Explanation letter
8c. The cover letter
9. Greetings Closing
10. Name of office
11. signature
12. Names to approach
13. copy
14. Attachment page letter / initials
  • Simplified-style
Simplified-style business letters contain all the same elements as the full-block and semi-block letters. Like the full-block format, the simplified format left-justifies every line except for the company logo or letterhead. The date line is either slightly right of center or flush with the center of the page. Letters written in the simplified format have fewer internal sections, such as the body, salutation and date line.
Using the simplified style is the most useful at times when you don’t have a recipient’s contact name. Because the simplified style does not require a salutation, you don’t need the person’s name. The simplified format does away with unneeded formality while maintaining a professional approach.
  • Hanging-Indented Style
This very useful style places the first words of each paragraph prominently on the page. It is useful for letters that deal with a variety of different topics. However, for normal business communications, this style is very rarely used. The first line of the paragraph begins at the left-hand margin. And the other lines of the same paragraph are indented three to four spaces. This is the reversal of semi-indented style discussed in other page.


4. Example Of Business Letter

  • Inquiry Letter

























  •  Order Letter



























  • Complaint Letter




























  • Application Letter



































  • Memo




































 

METODE ILMIAH

1. Pengertian Metode Ilmiah :

Metode ilmiah atau proses ilmiah (bahasa Inggrisscientific method) merupakan proses keilmuan untuk memperoleh pengetahuan secara sistematis berdasarkan bukti fisis. Ilmuwan melakukan pengamatan serta membentuk hipotesis dalam usahanya untuk menjelaskan fenomena alamPrediksi yang dibuat berdasarkan hipotesis tersebut diuji dengan melakukaneksperimen. Jika suatu hipotesis lolos uji berkali-kali, hipotesis tersebut dapat menjadi suatu teori ilmiah.


Unsur metode ilmiah

Unsur utama metode ilmiah adalah pengulangan empat langkah berikut:
  1. Karakterisasi (pengamatan dan pengukuran)
  2. Hipotesis (penjelasan teoretis yang merupakan dugaan atas hasil pengamatan dan pengukuran)
  3. Prediksi (deduksi logis dari hipotesis)
  4. Eksperimen (pengujian atas semua hal di atas 




  1. DNA/contoh

Setiap langkah diilustrasikan dengan contoh dari penemuan struktur DNA:
  1. DNA/karakterisasi
  2. DNA/hipotesis
  3. DNA/prediksi
  4. DNA/eksperimen
Contoh tersebut dilanjutkan pada tahap "Evaluasi dan pengulangan", yaitu DNA/pengulangan.


            1. Karakterisasi
    Metode ilmiah bergantung pada karakterisasi yang cermat atas subjek investigasi. Dalam proses karakterisasi, ilmuwan mengidentifikasi sifat-sifat utama yang relevan yang dimiliki oleh subjek yang diteliti. Selain itu, proses ini juga dapat melibatkan proses penentuan (definisi) dan pengamatan; pengamatan yang dimaksud seringkali memerlukan pengukuran dan/atau perhitungan yang cermat. Proses pengukuran dapat dilakukan dalam suatu tempat yang terkontrol, seperti laboratorium, atau dilakukan terhadap objek yang tidak dapat diakses atau dimanipulasi seperti bintangatau populasi manusia. Proses pengukuran sering memerlukan peralatan ilmiah khusus seperti termometerspektroskop, atau voltmeter, dan kemajuan suatu bidang ilmu biasanya berkaitan erat dengan penemuan peralatan semacam itu. Hasil pengukuran secara ilmiah biasanya ditabulasikan dalam tabel, digambarkan dalam bentuk grafik, atau dipetakan, dan diproses dengan perhitungan statistika seperti korelasi dan regresi

    2. DNA/karakterisasi

                Sejarah penemuan struktur DNA merupakan contoh klasik dari empat tahap metode ilmiah: pada tahun 1950 telah diketahui bahwa pewarisan genetik memiliki deskripsi matematis, diawali oleh penelitian Gregor Mendel, namun mekanisme gen tersebut belumlah diketahui dengan jelas. Para peneliti di laboratorium William Lawrence Bragg di Universitas Cambridge membuat gambar-gambar difraksi sinar-X atas berbagai macam molekul. Berdasarkan susunan kimianya, dirasakan mungkin untuk mengkarakterisasikan struktur fisis DNA dengan gambar sinar-X. Lihat: DNA 2

    3. Karakterisasi

    Metode ilmiah bergantung pada karakterisasi yang cermat atas subjek investigasi. Dalam proses karakterisasi, ilmuwan mengidentifikasi sifat-sifat utama yang relevan yang dimiliki oleh subjek yang diteliti. Selain itu, proses ini juga dapat melibatkan proses penentuan (definisi) dan pengamatan; pengamatan yang dimaksud seringkali memerlukan pengukuran dan/atau perhitungan yang cermat. Proses pengukuran dapat dilakukan dalam suatu tempat yang terkontrol, seperti laboratorium, atau dilakukan terhadap objek yang tidak dapat diakses atau dimanipulasi seperti bintangatau populasi manusia. Proses pengukuran sering memerlukan peralatan ilmiah khusus seperti termometerspektroskop, atau voltmeter, dan kemajuan suatu bidang ilmu biasanya berkaitan erat dengan penemuan peralatan semacam itu. Hasil pengukuran secara ilmiah biasanya ditabulasikan dalam tabel, digambarkan dalam bentuk grafik, atau dipetakan, dan diproses dengan perhitungan statistika seperti korelasi dan regresi. Pengukuran dalam karya ilmiah biasanya juga disertai dengan estimasi ketidakpastian hasil pengukuran tersebut. Ketidakpastian tersebut sering diestimasikan dengan melakukan pengukuran berulang atas kuantitas yang diukur

    DNA/hipotesis

    Sebagai contoh, dalam usaha untuk menentukan struktur DNAFrancis Crick dan James Watson menghipotesiskan bahwa molekul tersebut memiliki struktur heliks: dua spiral yang saling memilin. Linus Pauling yang baru akan melakukan studi serius terhadap molekul tersebut menghipotesiskan struktur heliks ganda tiga. Lihat: DNA 1|...DNA 3

    Prediksi dari hipotesis

    Hipotesis yang berguna akan memungkinkan prediksi berdasarkan deduksi. Prediksi tersebut mungkin meramalkan hasil suatu eksperimen dalam laboratorium atau pengamatan suatu fenomena di alam. Prediksi tersebut dapat pula bersifat statistik dan hanya berupa probabilitas. Hasil yang diramalkan oleh prediksi tersebut haruslah belum diketahui kebenarannya (apakah benar-benar akan terjadi atau tidak). Hanya dengan demikianlah maka terjadinya hasil tersebut menambah probabilitas bahwa hipotesis yang dibuat sebelumnya adalah benar. Jika hasil yang diramalkan sudah diketahui, hal itu disebut konsekuensi dan seharusnya sudah diperhitungkan saat membuat hipotesis. Jika prediksi tersebut tidak dapat diamati, hipotesis yang mendasari prediksi tersebut belumlah berguna bagi metode bersangkutan dan harus menunggu metode yang mungkin akan datang. Sebagai contoh, teknologi atau teori baru boleh jadi memungkinkan eksperimen untuk dapat dilakukan.

    DNA/prediksi

    Setelah Watson dan Crick menghipotesiskan bahwa DNA merupakan heliks ganda, Francis Crick memprediksikan bahwa gambar difraksi sinar-X DNA akan menunjukkan suatu bentuk huruf X. Lihat: DNA 1 | ...DNA 4

    Eksperimen

    Setelah prediksi dibuat, hasilnya dapat diuji dengan eksperimen. Jika hasil eksperimen bertentangan dengan prediksi, maka hipotesis yang sedak diuji tidaklah benar atau tidak lengkap dan membutuhkan perbaikan atau bahkan perlu ditinggalkan. Jika hasil eksperimen sesuai dengan prediksi, maka hipotesis tersebut boleh jadi benar namun masih mungkin salah dan perlu diuji lebih lanjut. Hasil eksperimen tidak pernah dapat membenarkan suatu hipotesis, melainkan meningkatkan probabilitas kebenaran hipotesis tersebut. Hasil eksperimen secara mutlak bisa menyalahkan suatu hipotesis bila hasil eksperimen tersebut bertentangan dengan prediksi dari hipotesis. Bergantung pada prediksi yang dibuat, berupa-rupa eksperimen dapat dilakukan. Eksperimen tersebut dapat berupa eksperimen klasik di dalam laboratorium atau ekskavasi arkeologis. Eksperimen bahkan dapat berupa mengemudikan pesawat dari New York ke Paris dalam rangka menguji hipotesis aerodinamisme yang digunakan untuk membuat pesawat tersebut. Pencatatan yang detail sangatlah penting dalam eksperimen, untuk membantu dalam pelaporan hasil eksperimen dan memberikan bukti efektivitas dan keutuhan prosedur yang dilakukan. Pencatatan juga akan membantu dalam reproduksi eksperimen.

    DNA/eksperimen

    Ketika James Watson meneliti apa yang telah ditemukan Rosalind Franklin pada gambar difraksi sinar-X DNA buatannya, Watson melihat bentuk huruf X yang telah diprediksikan Crick sebagai struktur heliks. Lihat: DNA 1 | ...DNA/pengulangan

    Evaluasi dan pengulangan

    Proses ilmiah merupakan suatu proses yang iteratif, yaitu berulang. Pada langkah yang manapun, seorang ilmuwan mungkin saja mengulangi langkah yang lebih awal karena pertimbangan tertentu. Ketidakberhasilan untuk membentuk hipotesis yang menarik dapat membuat ilmuwan mempertimbangkan ulang subjek yang sedang dipelajari. Ketidakberhasilan suatu hipotesis dalam menghasilkan prediksi yang menarik dan teruji dapat membuat ilmuwan mempertimbangkan kembali hipotesis tersebut atau definisi subjek penelitian. Ketidakberhasilan eksperimen dalam menghasilkan sesuatu yang menarik dapat membuat ilmuwan mempertimbangkan ulang metode eksperimen tersebut, hipotesis yang mendasarinya, atau bahkan definisi subjek penelitian itu. Dapat pula ilmuwan lain memulai penelitian mereka sendiri dan memasuki proses tersebut pada tahap yang manapun. Mereka dapat mengadopsi karakterisasi yang telah dilakukan dan membentuk hipotesis mereka sendiri, atau mengadopsi hipotesis yang telah dibuat dan mendeduksikan prediksi mereka sendiri. Sering kali eksperimen dalam proses ilmiah tidak dilakukan oleh orang yang membuat prediksi, dan karakterisasi didasarkan pada eksperimen yang dilakukan oleh orang lain.

    DNA/pengulangan

    Watson dapat mendeduksikan struktur utama DNA dengan menggunakan model konkret bentuk fisik nukleotida yang menyusun DNA. Dia menggunakan acuan panjang ikatan kimia yang telah dideduksikan oleh Linus Pauling. Diawali dengan penemuan oleh James Watson dan Francis Crick tersebut, lahirlah bidang ilmu baru: biologi molekularLihat: DNA 1

    sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metode_ilmiah


penalaran deduktif

PENALARAN DEDUKTIF


Penalaran adalah proses berpikir yang bertolak dari pengamatan indera (pengamatan empirik) yang menghasilkan sejumlah konsep dan pengertian. Berdasarkan pengamatan yang sejenis juga akan terbentuk proposisi – proposisi yang sejenis, berdasarkan sejumlah proposisi yang diketahui atau dianggap benar, orang menyimpulkan sebuah proposisi baru yang sebelumnya tidak diketahui. Proses inilah yang di sebut dengan menalar, proposisi yang dijadikan dasar penyimpulan disebut dengan premis (antesedens) dan hasil kesimpulannya disebut dengan konklusi (consequence). Hubungan antara premis dan konklusi disebut konsekuensi.

Ada 2 jenis metode penalaran , metode penalaran induktif dan deduktif

Dikarnakan ini tugas saya akan membahas tentang metode penalaran deduktif saja, Metode berpikir deduktif adalah metode berpikir yang menerapkan hal-hal yang umum terlebih dahulu untuk seterusnya dihubungkan dalam bagian-bagiannya yang khusus.

Contoh: Masyarakat Indonesia konsumtif (umum) dikarenakan adanya perubahan arti sebuah kesuksesan (khusus) dan kegiatan imitasi (khusus) dari media-media hiburan yang menampilkan gaya hidup konsumtif sebagai prestasi sosial dan penanda status sosial.
  •  Penalaran Deduktif

Penalaran deduktif yaitu adalah cara berpikir dengan berdasarkan suatu   pernyataan dasar untuk menarik kesimpulan.

Contoh klasik dari penalaran deduktif, yang diberikan oleh Aristoteles, ialah:
·         Semua manusia fana (pasti akan mati). (premis mayor)
·         Sokrates adalah manusia. (premis minor)
·         Sokrates pasti (akan) mati. (kesimpulan)
  • Macam-Macam Silogisme di dalam Penalaran Deduktif:

   Di dalam penalaran deduktif terdapat entimen macam silogisme, yaitu silogisme kategorial,          silogisme hipotesis, silogisme alternatif dan silogisme entimen.
1.    Silogisme kategorial
   Silogisme kategorial disusun berdasarkan klasifikasi premis dan kesimpulan yang kategoris. Premis yang mengandung predikat dalam kesimpulan disebut premis mayor, sedangkan premis yang mengandung subjek dalam kesimpulan disebut premis minor.

      Silogisme kategorial terjadi dari tiga proposisi, yaitu:
o   Premis umum : Premis Mayor (My)
o   Premis khusus remis Minor (Mn)
o   Premis simpulan : Premis Kesimpulan (K)

    Dalam kesimpulan terdapat subject dan predikat. Subject simpulan disebut subject term mayor dan predikat disebut term minor.
      Contoh:

Contoh silogisme Kategorial:
My : Semua mahasiswa adalah lulusan SLTA
Mn : Badu adalah mahasiswa
K : Badu lulusan SLTA

2.    Silogisme hipotesis
      Silogisme yang terdiri atas premis mayor yang berproposisi konditional hipotesis.
Konditional hipotesis yaitu, bila premis minornya membenarkan anteseden, simpulannya membenarkan konsekuen. Bila minornya menolak anteseden, simpulannya juga menolak konsekuen.

      Contoh :
My : Jika tidak ada air, manusia akan kehausan.
Mn : Air tidak ada.
K : Jadi, Manusia akan kehausan.

3.    Silogisme alternative
      Silogisme yang terdiri atas premis mayor berupa proposisi alternatif.
Proposisi alternatif yaitu bila premis minornya membenarkan salah satu alternatifnya. Simpulannya akan menolak alternatif yang lain.
 ContohMy : Nenek Sumi berada di Bandung atau Bogor.
Mn : Nenek Sumi berada di Bandung.
K : Jadi, Nenek Sumi tidak berada di Bogor.

4.    Silogisme entiment
Silogisme ini jarang ditemukan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, baik dalam tulisan maupun lisan. Yang dikemukakan hanya premis minor dan simpulan.
Contoh:
- Dia menerima hadiah pertama karena dia telah menang dalam  sayembara itu.
- Anda telah memenangkan sayembara ini, karena itu Anda berhak menerima hadiahnya. namun silogisme kategorial dapat dibedakan menjadi dua saja, yaitu silogisme kategorial dan silogisme tersusun. Dimana silogisme tersusun terbagi lagi menjadi tiga kategorial yaitu:
 a. Epikherema
Epikherema adalah jabaran dari silogisme kategorial yang diperluas dengan jalan memperluas salah satu premisnya atau keduanya. Cara yang biasa digunakan adalah dengan menambahkan keterangan sebab: penjelasan sebab terjadinya, keterangan waktu, maupun poembuktian keberadaannya.
Contoh:
Semua pahlawan bersifat mulia sebab mereka selalu memperjuangkan hak miliki bersama dengan menomorduakan kepentingan pribadinya. Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin adalah pahlawan. Jadi, Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin itu mulia.
 b. Entimem
Silogisme ini merupakan jenis silogisme yang sama dengan pada penjelasan di atas.
 c. Sorites.
Silogisme tipe ini sangat cocok untuk bentuk-bentuk tulisan atau pembicaraan yang bernuansa persuasif. Silogisme tipe ini didukung oleh lebih dari tiga premis, bergantung pada topik yang dikemukakan serta arah pembahasan yang dihubung-hubungkan demikian rupa sehingga predikat premis pertama menjadi subyek premis kedua, predikat premis kedua menjadi subyek pada premis ketiga, predikat premis kedua menjadi subyek pada premis keempat, dan seterusnya, hingga akhirnya sampailah pada kesimpulan yang diambil dari subyek premis pertama dan predikat premis terakhir.
 referensi : http://syahrulhavianto.blogspot.com





Postingan Lama